FINAL ESSAY
ESSAY TITLE: HOW HAS THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GRAPHIC DESIGN, MUSIC AND ITS AUDIENCE CHANGED, SINCE THE ADVANCEMENT OF STREAMING SERVICES?
AUTHOR: TIA NEWTON
TOTAL WORDS: 5454 Without bibliography and list of illustrations 6412 with
The focus of this research examines the relationship between design for music and its audience. Like all forms of human communication, music has been around for thousands of years. In contrast, graphic design came much later in the early 1920s, when typographic designer William A. Dwiggins first coined the name graphic design (Ellis, M. 2017). However, graphic design principles have been around for an extremely long time. Its visual language, the legibility of typography, glyphs and symbols and grid systems, just were not regarded as a recognised discipline until later.
Nevertheless, both music and design came together and made music what it is today. Many elements have contributed to such a relationship, the musicians and designers involved, the industrial revolution, The World Wars, breakthroughs in technology and lastly the people who get to experience it. The reason for music was to share and enjoy, so it plays an integral part in how the relationship unfolds. Using phenomenology to analyse how people experience the developments of music and design from a first- person perspective. Moreover, how the advancement of streaming services have not only affected the contemporary relationship between music and design but the consumers experience of the two.
SECTION ONE: THE FIRST FORMS OF RECORDED MUSIC
The first form of recorded music came in the written form. It is still widely recognised today and one of the critical components when practising music. There is no one person responsible for the development of sheet music, only countless people who sort to refine and innovate the symbols we see today to form a complex language of music (Bennett, J. 2017). Similar to typography, it has had to change over time to be more understandable and legible. Before the time of the printing press, people would handwrite sheet music which like typography, can translate differently from person to person, especially with symbols that had similar appearances. However, once Johannes Gutenberg invented the printing press in 1450 (History.com Editors, 2019) a short 25 years later, the first polyphonic music was printed by Ottaviano Petrucci, Harmonice Musices Odhecaton A in 1501 (Gustave, R. 1934), (McLerran, M. 2017). The relationship between music and design at this point was not acknowledged, considering graphic design had not begun at this point. However, subtle hints of graphic design were used in the development of the symbols and using grid system like layout on which to structure them. These same principles were applied when inventing the printing press. Music and design alike benefitted from the innovation and in similar ways, legibility of characters, text and a new means of mass production methods. People experienced music in an entirely different way back then; only the higher classes could afford an education to learn how to play and read music. However, it did not stop the lower classes from enjoying it; improvising music which provided a more authentic form, something that cannot be replicated by someone else.
Quite sometime later, Thomas Edison invented the phonograph. Initially, the phonograph was to be a further development of the earlier Telegraph, making it possible for people to send recorded verbal messages. The machine inscribed audio onto a tinfoil wrapped cardboard cylinder for later playback (Thompson, C. 2016) Edison explained the potential of the device for music. The sound that emitted from the first phonograph was hardly audible. Another set back was that only an expert could work the machine, and over time all the components had a tendency to wear down and need replacing. Other inventors took on the challenge to make the phonograph a fully functioning machine that could allow consumers to purchase and use the machine in their homes. The graphophone emerged in the 1880s after Alexander Graham Bell’s Volta Laboratory sought to improve the phonograph.
Meanwhile, Emile Berliner was developing the gramophone (1887), which worked similarly to the inventions before. Its contrasting feature was that it took recordings from flat discs as opposed to a cylinder. The gramophone was the first real iteration of the contemporary record player. The shellac used to make the records was brittle and would end up scratched and decay after only a few uses. It may have seemed a disadvantage at the time; however, this meant that no two people would experience that record the same way, making the experience once in a lifetime. They heard the screech of the pin as it struggled to play the music of the scratched record.
Music distribution started producing a wave of revenue; phonograph booths opened so people could pay to go and listen to popular composers of the time. The gramophone was the first record player to be released for public purchase in 1895. The popularity continued to rise until the radio took its spotlight later that year and the novelty of the record player had worn off. With that, design had a new role to play, handpainted typography on storefronts and posters littered the streets advertising for people to visit, this was a massive development in the relationship between music and design. The phonograph was a brand new experience for people; the first time a person could be alone and listen to their choice of music (Smith, D. W. 2018). Similarly, as before, it was only the elite classes that could afford such a luxury. Even if the lower classes could save the money to attend a phonograph booth, they would be refused entry, as it was taboo for the classes to mix. Nevertheless, people of the lower classes still enjoyed the improvisation of music hidden inside the pubs or people singing in the streets.
SECTION TWO: AFTER THE WORLD WARS
During the World Wars, there were a lot of technological advancements and new materials were being used to improve general living (Moog, R. A. n.d). Subsequently, this aimed to combat the shortages of materials that came after World War II, one being the shellac (Zantel- Wiener, A. 2017). Thereupon, the vinyl record was devised in 1930 because the need for communication was higher than ever. However, this was not released for public use until 1948 by Columbia Records, after the war. It was 33 ⅓ LP, which means ’long playing’, that gave users the ability to listen to 25 minutes of music on either side of the record. This is far longer than the original 78 rpm record that was limited to only 4 minutes per side (Infoplease Staff, 2017). The creation of the vinyl record benefited the music industry, unlike the shellac records, vinyl had much more durability, higher sound quality and its lifespan was far longer than its predecessors. However, by the late 1950s and ’60s vinyl took the industry by storm, this also came from a growing music industry. A lot was happening in the music, and design industries, many avant-garde artists and musicians were emerging and developing several new waves of art. Music genres were starting to establish, from Jazz and blues to rock ‘n’ roll. Pop art emerged by well-known artists Andy Warhol and Robert Rauschenberg. It was an exciting time for the two creative industries and a time where the relationship between the two stood out more than ever.
The Beatles’ Sgt Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band (Figure 1), 1967, was one of the first of many iconic records. To this day, the timeless design of the inner/ outer record sleeve was the most expensive record design ever produced and arguably the most famous. The design took shape when Paul McCartney shared his concept of the cover design to Sir Peter Blake and his wife Jan Howarth. McCartney had this image of ‘The Beatles’ stood beside the Lord Mayor with all their friends and dignitaries surrounding them. An interesting yet seemingly random feature was the large floral clock at their feet. Colin Fleming believed this was to signify the death of the original ‘pop’ band The Beatles used to be and the awakening of the “populist avante- garde band”. Blake did this by cutting out life-size, black and white photographs of 88 famous people, hand-tinting them and then positioning them around the band as McCartney imagined; then the scene was photographed by the late Micheal Cooper (Fleming, C. 2017). The design took much effort to put together, especially gathering consent from all of the individuals they wanted in the photograph. The music was The Beatles statement; however, the record sleeve design proved that there is a need for a relationship between music and design. At the time, new music was abundant; without this album cover, the music itself may have just blended in with the rest. However, the collaborative effort of the design between the band, Sir Peter Blake, Jan Howarth and Micheal Cooper, paid off because it set them apart from the crowd. It catches peoples eyes and attracts all the senses to enjoy the experience.
The Sex Pistols were known to be a controversial band; they were sacked from two record labels and banned from playing across several venues in the UK. Graphic designer, Jamie Reid was responsible for designing the cover of ‘Never Mind The Bollocks, Here’s The Sex Pistols’ (1977) (Figure 2), which like the albums creator, had to have a controversial design. This particular design and album came at a time of ‘Thatcherism’ and an all-time low for England with unemployment at a high and industrial strikes. The typography used became a key feature and link to what was going on in the UK. The news and tabloids were full of controversy and biased information, hence why the words “the bollocks” font (designed by Jamie Reid) has a similar appearance to that of many newspapers. The symbolism hidden in these subtle design features, spoke loud to the public. The use of an expletive caused a stir with many critiques and music stores. A lot of significant retailers refused to sell the album, regardless the album hit number one in the UK Album charts and later went Gold not a couple of weeks after. Then it was named platinum by Riaa (Teamrock, 2016). It shows that music and design are always there to challenge pivotal moments in society and almost rebel against it. The album provided an excellent example of when a designer and musicians have collaborated to produce something unique and evolutionary.
Since it was not until 1922 that graphic design was considered a discipline (Ellis, M. 2017), there was not much time between then and the second World War for it to flourish. Subsequently, this made the 50s onwards crucial in the worlds of music and design, because it was the real beginning of the relationship between the two. The interest in music and design was growing, and the audiences were broadening. After the World Wars and countless movements awakening, music was no longer only used for entertainment, it served another purpose for society. People ingested the music and made it part of their personality by groups of people adopting hairstyles of their favourite singers or bands, fashion trends based on the lyrics of songs and thus creating a completely different experience of music. The people who enjoyed the music were becoming the music that made these groups unique in a way, rather than being separated by a collapsed class system, it now divided into subcultures of expression and creativity such as; Punk, HipHop, Pop and many more (Infoplease Staff, 2017). From a first-person perspective, the experience of music was new at the time, after the hardships of war, people could now find a source of identity and unison, by sharing this music and the design.
SECTION THREE: MUSIC ON THE GO
The invention of the cassette tape was in the early 1960s. However, it was not until the late 1970’s they became popular because of the improved recording and sound quality (MN2S, 2020). Similarly to the phonograph, the reason for the cassette was initially for dictation (Fung, 2017), however it succeeded in becoming a new means to distribute music. With large technology corporations like Sony pushing this invention by releasing the Walkman in 1979 (Richter, F. 2017), which created another means of revenue for the industry. People could play cassettes in the car and on the go, hence for Sony naming their version of the machine the Walkman, this led to the interest in vinyl declining. A lot of the designs for cassettes started somewhat dull as its previous function was to be sold in bulk, so the designs were not appropriate for its use for music until later (Raney, N. 2020). It was much smaller than the vinyl, so it came with challenges for designers, mostly as graphic design was still relatively new at this point. Nevertheless, vinyl was not obsolete, so designers were still working alongside musicians producing the album designs printed on the sleeves of the record.
The experiences people were having with music at this time was very similar as before however, now the music was much more accessible and could be enjoyed anywhere. Meaning the user was not limited to listening to music just at home but, outdoors and on the road. Music would be part of every day, if something happened whilst a person was listening to music, it would be the critical marker of that memory. For example, when a partner says “I love you” for the first time, a song may be associated with the memory.
The success of the cassette was short-lived as the Compact Disk came a mere decade later, the first release being ABBA’s “The Visitors” in 1981. It was far better in nearly all aspects of functionality compared to the cassette; the storage capability was far higher, the sound quality was impeccable, and had a much longer lifespan. Supporting the arrival of the Compact Disk, Sony released the ‘Diskman’ which was in effect the ‘Walkman’ for CDs. It was not just the music industry that began using the Compact Disk, but so did film and television, referring to it as the Digitally Versatile (or Video) Disk. The stereo was also developing to match the quality of the CD so people could have a concert atmosphere in their own home, hosting large parties and the music being loud enough for everyone to hear and enjoy. The CDs appearance was very similar to its predecessor the vinyl which added nostalgia to the product and allowed graphic designers to revert to their roots because the format of the album design was much the same.
Punk had been around for a while, and much of the music was beginning to sound too much alike. The rock ‘n’ roll genre of music was dying out and needed something new; this is when grunge arrived driven by bands like Nirvana. The album ‘Nevermind’ and its odd album cover design (Figure 3) is what made grunge become mainstream and end up being extremely popular in the ’90s and early 2000s. The album’s design had quite a peculiar origin, the lead singer of the band, Kurt Cobain had the idea after watching a documentary on water births with their drummer David Grohl (May, T. 2018). Designer Robert Fisher considered this idea but, many of the stock photographs of water birthing, as can be predicted, were too graphic to have as an album cover and would be extremely expensive to license. Fisher then commissioned Kirk Weddle (photographer), who went on to take some bespoke images. Fisher went on to edit the chosen image by adding the fish hook and dollar bill. The name of the band in a narrow serif font which ultimately was Nirvana’s signature/ logo, the warped sans serif type of the album title to mimic the pool. The album was eye-catching and was a hit almost immediately, the edgy music and design was something different to the other microgenres of rock around in the ’90s. The music alone was very successful, but, with the aid of the design, it was evolutionary.
Another iconic album cover design for the Compact Disk was for Gorillaz’, “Demon Days” by Jamie Hewlett (Figure 4). Inspired by his previous work on the comic Tank Girl, he designed a character that portrayed each member of the band. The designs ended up being the sole identity of the band, the characters animated for music videos and backdrops of live concerts. Many of their concerts were purely the characters playing rather than the band. The album design was successful in developing a visual identity that anyone who sees the design will know it is the Gorillaz (May, T. 2018). The music videos and concerts are so immersive because it is not a realistic setting, it is purely fictional and out of this world, making the music and design for it transport the audience into the band’s vision of the songs. The band is still highly successful today releasing “Song Machine”, their seventh studio album.
The experiences of music people were having at this point were very similar to that of when the cassette was popular. Moreover, it was a more refined audio experience, noise control, and overall sound quality had made a difference. The main advantage of the Compact Disk in comparison to the cassette was its lifespan longevity was far superior and made for a music collectors dream. The Compact Disk is easy to scratch, but it adds a sense of uniqueness to each time a track is listened to, whether it has a slight glitch in a song or pause, it changes the experience and mimics the ageing of a song in a physical form. As mentioned before, the Compact Disk has a considerable resemblance to the vinyl which adds a sort of nostalgia to it and shows how the technology surrounding music has progressed since the shellac records of the phonograph.
Alongside the development of the Compact Disk, the MP3 Player was invented by Tomislav Uzelac (Bellis, M. 2019) which is a digital file compression device allowing for hundreds of songs to be stored and played from it. The reason for the MP3 player was because the internet was beginning to take off, which led to the digital downloading of music. Unfortunately, nothing had been put in place to stop people illegally downloading music, and it was effortless to do so. In the 1997 Economist article titled, “Tremble, Everyone”, it warns of a world where the internet cannibalises all industries, including music and the arts (The Economist, 1997). By allowing access to every known product and service, it immobilises the use of physical distribution. In this case, the article was correct as the digital download industry eventually superseded the Compact Disk in 2012 (US) 2015 (UK), resulting in a considerable decline in sales. The annual revenue for music globally took a 50% decrease between 1999 - 2009 (Zantel- Wiener, A. 2017). There were a plethora of music download sites such as Napster, Grooveshark and Youtube Converter, which had a substantial negative impact on the music industry. A lot of these sites did not compensate the rights holders for playing the music without consent. Apple worked on the well known iTunes to solve the problem releasing it in 2004 which went on to
become the largest music distributor in 2008 however, people were still illegally downloading music which is why it took iTunes so long to be a success. The impact these sites had, led to courts around the world to take action. In 2014, the courts began issuing notices to internet service providers stating they must block such sites that were responsible for the illegal dissemination of copyrighted works. In regards to design, the sites involved did not require much design, the free music system was enough of a sell to its audience that no amount of design would change that. Designers were still designing album covers, merchandise and music videos; however, with the decline of physical sales, it became more and more challenging for the relationship between music and design.
SECTION FOUR: STREAMING SERVICE DOMINATION
Shortly after, the end of illegal digital downloading sites, a similar service to iTunes entered the scene, Last.fm. The first successful, machine operated system that could use the data formed from the users listening habits and compile a list of recommendations from that data (Grannell, C. 2018). From this, several adaptations were released in hope to be bigger and better than the one before. Trying new methods like making it so people did not have to buy full albums but, stream particular songs and adapting more personalised listening by customers having their own stations. Then Spotify was developed, it had all the benefits of its earlier streaming systems and more. The personalisation was of an even greater level, the more consumers would listen to, the more recommendations it would provide and to further that, can categorise by genre, mood and activities. It also generates lists of similar artists, music released by up and coming artists that are less well known (Pittman, E. W. 2016). With the new wave of streaming services, smartphones have also been getting more advanced. Presently, there is no need for separate music playing devices because smartphones can do just that, with every model getting better quality speakers and earphones each time. Spotify and other streaming giants like Youtube and Apple Music have also made sure their systems work efficiently for such devices.
Youtube is said to be the largest streaming service for music currently. Many people use it regularly for the free version, which is the same as its streaming subscription app apart from when users close the app the video ceases playing. Also, the general appearance of the actual Youtube music platform is more akin to Spotify’s user platform than its free version. It also has a very personalised user experience, that can be altered by the account holder, making it very easy to navigate through and organise a person’s musical tastes. Being so accessible and user friendly has made it so there is less importance on the design element for the music. Album covers have now become thumbnails on an already small screen. Adverts for new songs or albums now limited to social media adverts or push notifications from the apps. The one advantage of the Youtube Music service is with the Premium subscription; users can watch music videos for a more engaging experience. Spotify and Youtube Music both have incredibly similar app designs, both using a two-tone background of black and each of their signature colours such as Spotify’s green and Youtube’s red (Figures 5 and 6). There are slight differences in the layout; however, they are not particularly noticeable until side by side, take away the logo and the red and green, and the two would be almost identical. However, there are some new design elements that designers have had to do for these apps, such as the playlist icons that the two platforms have. They usually have a minimalistic geometric background and a couple of musicians photographed in the front (i.e. musicians associated with that genre, mood, or recommendations). The colours and shapes used are based on the tone of music in that playlist. Also, Spotify’s mobile app has gifs playing alongside some songs; this is not Spotify making these themselves but, designers who work alongside the musician. It does make the song stand out next to the typical tiny album cover on the screen, as it takes over the whole screen and fits with the mood of the music, like a snippet of a music video.
Music has never been more accessible and mobile. For no more than £10 a month for a subscription with unlimited access to music, which is cheaper than the average cost per physical album. The benefit of streaming services might also be its drawback, allowing for such a large amount of accessibility is fantastic for listening to lots of different musicians all around the world. However, having such power over this takes away the excitement that people felt in the past. The ritual people would experience when buying the new album; the suspenseful wait for the release of a new album, lining up outside the shop and then having to wait till they got home to listen to it finally. This whole process -although tedious at times- was all part of a person’s experience with that album. The saying “Too much of a good thing” is appropriate when applied to streaming services. There is a lack of appreciation for music like there used to be in the past; without the engagement of an iconic album design or extensive billboard advertising, everything looks the same. People do not take the time to look at the small icon on the screen, they merely go on a constant swipe right, swipe left cycle, making music just background noise for many people (Machover, T. et al. 2019).
SECTION FIVE: THE REVIVAL OF DESIGN FOR MUSIC
This change in the relationship between music and design has not gone unnoticed. Many designers and musicians alike fear what will happen next. However, there is conflict amongst designers, some are still lamenting on the past, and how good the relationship between music and design was primarily at the time of the 12- inch vinyl. Others are seeing this as a new challenge that has gifted designers a whole new platform to design for (Gosling, E. 2016), (Creative Bloq Staff, 2006). There is a foundation in what both sides are saying, technology is continuously advancing, and it is hard to keep up, but it also provides so many opportunities for designers. Some designers and musicians have already been working together to find new innovative ideas that will strengthen not only the relationship between music and design but also the engagement of their audience.
Musician Bjork created an immersive virtual reality exhibition (Figure 7) which has been held by several venues, including Somerset House in 2016. Bjork has always pushed boundaries; this exhibition brought together music, design and technology. The exhibition revolved around the immersive film for her song Black Lake directed by Andrew Thomas Huang, where the audience experienced panoramic visuals combined with the surround sound of the song. Huang also worked alongside Bjork on Stonemilker Virtual Reality, a project attributed to the first track from her Vulnicura album. The windswept beach featured in the VR is viewable in full 360- degree angle, making the viewer experience a one-to-one recital. Jesse Kanda directed Mouthmantra VR, which was an intense capture of the inside of Bjork’s mouth during her singing the song. The scene looked alien of sorts and not human. Warren Du Perez and Nick Thornton Jones directed the VR for Notget where Bjork is presented as a giant digital moth, using masks designed by James Merry and digital manipulation. “The exhibition is set to defy categorisation, mixing performance, film, digital installation and interactive experience”. The exhibition included an educational space that shows apps made by Bjork herself and custom- made instruments from Biophilia; the app explores music, nature and technology. An extensive video of Bjork’s 24- year career and collaborations was also screened alongside the exhibition (Somerset House Staff. 2016).
Radiohead designed a Virtual Reality experience (Figure 8) where the listeners can use and manipulate the VR in a natural environment (Universal Everything, 2013). Polyfauna means triangular shapes/atmospheres and plants, it allows the user to engage with music and design together in a unique way. Using the tool to explore the outdoors rather than being stuck inside on a screen. It is like a microcosm for what the music industry has become since the beginning of streaming services. The colours and shapes are exciting and it does make the audience want to interact with them. Even though it appears simple, the shapes move in a dynamic way to fit whatever environment it is in and the songs playing.
Barnbrook was responsible for designing David Bowie’s ‘Blackstar’ vinyl album cover (Figure 9), the singer died two days after its release—becoming an almost farewell album. Barnbrook has since spoken about how the album and the design, although simplistic, is full of symbolism as it came at a time where Bowie was questioning his mortality (Haworth, D. 2016). The design was heavily criticised by many, saying it took only five minutes to design and that no thought had gone into it. The most interesting part was the cut-out star, making it a physical process when in which a person will buy the record and once opened, it is exposed and will never play the same again, from scratches to dust, it will physically decay over time. There has been a revival of vinyl over the last two years, the record outsold CDs for the first time in 40 years in 2019 (Asprou, H. 2016). Therefore, vinyl may be making a comeback and be sold alongside people using streaming services.
Similar to Radiohead, Beyonce produced a film to spotlight her sixth debut album , Lemonade. This album was a massive step in her career; in general, her music has always targeted everyone, light pop anthems that just nodded at the notion of social issues she, herself experienced. This album focuses on these problems in a more aggressive, reflective and real- talk manner. As opposed to her other albums it did not trade in generic pop but highlighted life as a black woman in America. Praising customarily black facial features and hair types throughout the majority of songs and referencing the food associated with her childhood (Moore, M. J. 2016). Many people found this sudden change in her output a shock but also praised her more personal approach to her music and the more hard-hitting way of expressing herself. The film did very well, and her fanbase became stronger than ever. It allowed them to see and understand her on another level, so she is not just a tiny icon on a screen. However, it would be expensive to produce a film for every new album if everyone did it and it would not be as unique. Lemonade was a fantastic way to bring people back to the music, and the relationship between music and design is immense within this film. A shorter version of this would be a music video, but people spend less time watching them nowadays and so many music videos look the same today, they lack any uniqueness to them unlike this film experience.
CONCLUSION
There has always been graphic design for music, the visual language, and critical fundamentals applied in design were present throughout each development within music. Moreover, after both World Wars and the acknowledgement of graphic design, the fifties onwards showed a considerable rise in design for music as both industries were flourishing. Even today, musicians and designers alike, reminisce of the time of the vinyl when the relationship between the two was arguably the strongest it has ever been. However, with consumers developing a growing need for accessibility and music mobility, technology quickly started to advance, and with that, designers faced more challenges. The real problem hit with the beginning of streaming services, not only have they impacted the music industry but film and TV by dominating consumer screens. Reducing the once highly thought of album designs to tiny icons; nevertheless, it has forced designers to try something new. Rather than seeing this technological development as a setback, some designers have seen this as an opportunity, no longer limited to the square vinyl/ CD case, a large billboard or merchandise. The audience craves an experience like no other, something that engages all of the senses and more. Bjork Digital and Radiohead’s Polyfauna do just that; they used the advanced technology of today to create an experience that an album cover would never be able to do. It takes the user out of reality and gives them a taste of a world from the musician and designers own creation, giving them the control of how that person will experience their surroundings. Overall, streaming services are responsible for a profound change in the contemporary relationship between music and design; nevertheless, it is not a negative change. With every new invention or technological advancement, designers have adapted, and this is no different. Arguably, others have suggested that only the culturally elite and music fanatics would sort out these new experiences, which makes it more important for designers to create something that will be used by everyone. An interesting insight would be to reflect back to this essay to see what other developments in technology affect the music and design industry in the future. It is not possible to determine how graphic design will respond to the rapid increase in advancement of technology in the future.
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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure 1: 2017,The Beatles’ Sgt Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band album cover Available at: https://www.npr.org/2017/06/01/531039734/sgt-peppers-at-50-why-the-beatles-masterpiece-cant-be-replicated (Date accessed 19th November 2020)
Figure 2: 2016, The Sex Pistols’ Never Mind The Bollocks Here’s The Sex Pistols album cover. Available at: https://www.loudersound.com/features/the-story-behind-sex-pistols-never-mind-the-bollocks-album-artwork (Date accessed 19th November 2020)
Figure 3: 2017, Nirvana’s Nevermind album cover. Available at: https://www.rockmusicraider.com/nirvana-nevermind-review/ (Date accessed 19th November 2020)
Figure 4: 2016, Gorrilaz’ Demon Days album cover. Available at: https://lutheruk1.wordpress.com/2016/02/19/album-cover-analysis-gorillaz/ (Date accessed 19th November 2020)
Figure 5: Spotify (8.5.86). [Mobile app]. [Date accessed 19th November 2020] Available at: iTunes App Store.
Figure 6: 2018, Youtube Music app platform. Available at: https://www.theverge.com/2018/5/17/17364056/youtube-music-premium-google-launch (Date accessed 19th November 2020)
Figure 7: 2016, Bjork digital exhibition. Available at: https://www.somersethouse.org.uk/whats-on/bjork-digital (Date accessed 19th November 2020)
Figure 8: 2013, Radiohead’s Polyfauna augmented reality. Available at: https://universaleverything.com/projects/polyfauna (Date accessed 19th November 2020)
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